Discrimination and racism
The concepts of discrimination and racism are complex and occur at the structural and individual levels. Discrimination refers to inequitable or unjust treatment of individuals or groups based on factors such as race/ethnicity, class, gender, sexuality, ability, age and/or health status that results in social inequalities (King, 1996; McKenzie & Bhui, 2007; Pincus, 1996).
The definition of discrimination includes “treatment” or “action” that is different for groups of people based on a status that has been socially constructed, which may cause harm or disadvantage (Ibid.).
If individual discrimination is considered to be an action, then structural discrimination is considered to be the way the system operates. In other words, structural discrimination refers to inequitable outcomes for different social groups which are produced by social, institutional and organizational actions, procedures and practices that may act individually or together (King, 1996; Pincus, 1996).
Mental health problems and illnesses can be affected by various forms of discrimination, including but not limited to:
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Race
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Ethnicity
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Sexual orientation and gender identity
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Religion
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Disability
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Country of origin
The definition of racism says that it is the belief that some races are inherently superior to others (be it physically, intellectually, or culturally) and therefore have a right to dominate them. Racism is of particular concern for some immigrant and refugee populations.
A body of evidence highlights the experiences of race-based discrimination leading to poorer mental health status such as depression, anxiety, PTSD and psychosis (Beiser, 2005; Noh et al., 1999; Karelsen et al., 2015; Hyman, 2009; Hansson et al., 2010). This has significant implications for immigrants and refugees as an increasing number of people entering Canada are from racialized groups (Mental Health Commission of Canada, 2019).
Race-based discrimination includes both overt and subtle discrimination; the effect of each can differ:
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Covert (or subtle) racism
is defined as “cool,” “distant” and indirect in nature.
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Overt (or blatant) racism
is “hot,” “close” and direct.
Covert racism is usually expressed in three ways that are thought to be normative and acceptable:
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In defence of traditional values: “others” are seen to act in unacceptable ways.
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The exaggeration of cultural differences: the use of gross stereotypes.
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Denial of positive emotions toward individuals who are not from your group.
Subtle racism causes significant stress by creating uncertainty in terms of one's social identity (Noh et al., 2007).
Overt racism includes:
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The belief in racial superiority.
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Opposition to intimate contact with the other group(s).
(Pettigrew & Meertens, 1995: 58)
The belief in racial superiority.
Opposition to intimate contact with the other group(s).
Research has found direct linkages between overt racism and the loss of positive feelings in immigrants.